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in Roman military history!!
Joint U.S.-Romanian archaeological research at Roman city of Tropaeum Traiani
Tropaeum Traiani
is a fortified Roman city near the Black Sea, SE Romania,
dating to the 2nd-6th centuries AD. Near the city is an immense military
war monument, built by Roman veterans of the first war against the Dacians
(101-102 AD) and an on-site museum which houses original sculpture from
the
monument. There are on-going excavations in the city center every summer.
In addition, we will be conducting surveys of the surrounding territory
to
record archaeological sites in the vicinity of the city. More information
on the military history of this site is pasted below.
Nearest modern
village: Adamclisi
Nearest major city: Constantsa
Dates for 2004 Expedition: 16-30 July 2004 (longer stays possible)
For complete
information and application procedures, see our web site:
www.terraeuropaea.org
Contact: Prof.
Linda Ellis, San Francisco State university,
ELLISL@SFSU.EDU
Participation
cost ($900) covers all food (3 full, Romanian home-cooked
meals every day and wine), good lodging, local train transportation to/from
Bucharest to site, airport pickup and return with private van. Fee is tax
deductible (!) for US citizens/residents and helps the local school at
Adamclisi provide occupational training.
Excavations
are sponsored by Terra Europaea, a U.S. registered, non-profit
organization supporting archaeological excavations, an archaeological field
school for university students, an aid program for rural Romanian schools
and summer employment for local teenagers in rural villages near the
excavations, and an educational book donation program.
Excursions
are planned for participants to museums and all 3 ancient Greek
and Roman cities on Romania's Black Sea coast: Histria, Tomis, and
Callatis, as well as a boat excursion through the Danube Delta.
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Short Biography: L. Ellis
I am a Full
Professor at San Francisco State University and have taught
courses on Roman colonization and archaeology. My academic areas of
interest are archaeology in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, Roman
colonialism and commerce, and Roman military interactions with non-Roman
ethnic groups. I have been conducting archaeological research in Romania
continuously since 1979. Together with Dr. Alexandru Barnea of the
University of Bucharest, we have a surveying program surrounding the Roman
city of Tropaeum Traiani.
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TROPAEUM TRAIANI (ADAMCLISI): A BRIEF MILITARY HISTORY OF THE CITY & MONUMENT
Location
Tropaeum Traiani
is located near the modern-day village of Adamclisi in E
Romania, between the Danube River and the Black Sea coastline. This
archaeological complex comprises a Roman city, a military monument, and
on-site museum. This monument, 'tropaeum', was built by the Romans in
order to commemorate the victories against the Dacians in the first
Romano-Dacian war of AD 101-102. The on-site museum for Tropaeum Traiani,
established in 1977, houses the original sculptures, metopes (rectangular
limestone slabs with carved scenes of Roman legionary soldiers on parade
and in combat) and other architectural elements from the monument, as well
as archaeological finds from the city and surrounding area. The city of
Tropaeum Traiani itself was settled by war veterans and other colonists
and
was occupied from the 2nd to the 6th centuries AD. The war memorial
'tropaeum' dominates the surrounding countryside, and can be clearly seen
from the Roman city.
Brief Background on Roman Military History
During the
winter of 101-102, the Roman legions were stationed in army
camps in SW Romania just north of the Danube River, in one of several
attempts by the Roman empire to curb the growing power base and military
threat from the Dacians. The Dacian leader, Decebal, created a coalition
of surrounding non-Dacian tribes (Sarmatian and Germanic tribes) in the
northeast and northwest together with the Dacians against the Roman
legions. The strategic plan was to start from the north (today Moldavia),
move south through Dobrudja, down to the Balkan Mountains (today central
Bulgaria), and move west to create a swift attack behind the Roman front.
Coming from behind would cut off the Romans from their supply lines south
of the Danube and it would also create the element of surprise during a
period when the Danube was still frozen over and negotiable by foot
soldiers. Unfortunately for Decebal and his coalition, that winter was
milder than normal and the ice layer over the Danube was very thin. With
superior military intuition, the Roman emperor Trajan crossed the river
with some of his forces, moved southeast, and engaged the Dacian coalition
in an exceptionally vicious battle at Nicopolis ad Istrum (central
Bulgaria), where later he would build his 'city of victory'. Afterwards,
the Roman legions, auxiliary troops (military units of non-Roman citizens),
and the praetorian guards (who always accompanied the emperor) marched
further ENE to where more Dacian-Sarmatian-German coalition forces were
concentrated. The armies met on the plateau of Adamclisi to fight perhaps
one of most bloody battles in the history of the empire and was decisive
for eventual Roman control over Dacian territory. The battle of Adamclisi
was personally commanded by Emperor Trajan himself, and the human loss was
so great that the emperor decided to create a triumphal monument in honor
of his victory, a mausoleum for the incinerated remains of the Roman
officer corps, and an altar on the walls of which the names of more than
3,800 soldiers were carved in stone.
The Roman War Monument
The triumphal
monument was dedicated to Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger, the
god of war) and was erected between AD 106 and 109 during the reign of
Trajan following the two Dacian wars (101-102 and 105-106), as attested
by
inscriptions. In its original form, the base of the triumphal monument was
constructed as a huge cylindrical, drum-shaped structure, above which was
a
conical roof made of stone slates laid down like overlapping scales. On
top of the conical roof were two hexagonal bases in decreasing size, one
on top of the other, which supported a large triumphal statue, or
'tropaeum', a symbol of Roman victory. The stone was quarried at a 3 km
(about 1 3/4 miles) distance from the monument.
At the base
of the monument are nine rows of stairs. Above the stairs, the
massive cylindrical drum was constructed and faced with six rows of
undecorated stone slabs divided vertically by a row of sculptured scenes
('metopes') at the midpoint on the drum. The metopes, which measure 1.58
m
high and 1.16 m wide, show scenes from the Roman military campaigns fought
by Trajan against the Dacians and their allies. Some metopes show the
Roman military: cavalry in full armor, fights between Romans and Dacians,
enchained prisoners flanked by Roman soldiers; officers, dignitaries, horn
players, and standard-bearers; the emperor himself; as well as a good
number of combat scenes. Other metopes show rustic scenes such as flocks
of sheep or Dacian families. The sculptural style of the scenes is not as
sophisticated as Trajan's Column in Rome and indicates possibly local
workmanship. Of the total of 54 metopes, 49 survive (and are housed in the
on-site museum), 3 were never found, one metope was lost after 1896, and
another metope was taken to the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul in the
mid-19th century.
On the entire
upper circumference of the cylindrical drum is a series of 27
vertical rectangular blocks (1.56 meters high, 1.8 m wide) on which are
carved human figures who are obviously prisoners-of-war with hands tied
behind their backs. Based on studies of their costumes and armaments, and
comparing them to the frieze on Trajan's Column in Rome, these figures
represent Dacian, Sarmatian, and Germanic captives in the war against the
Romans.
Above the main
drum is the conical roof covered with more than 1,000 pieces
of stone slate. This roof supports two hexagonal bases above which was a
large triumphal statue in Roman armor and sculptures of war captives seated
or standing in submission. There are also two plaques with identical Latin
inscriptions, the original fragments of which are preserved in the on-site
museum and have been reconstructed and translated as follows:
"To Mars,
the god of war, Caesar the emperor, son of divine Nerva, Nerva
Trajan, Augustus, who defeated the Germans, the Dacians, great priest, for
the 13th time tribune of the plebeians, proclaimed emperor by the army for
the 6th time, elected consul for the 5th time, father of our homeland,
after defeating the Dacian and the Sarmatian armies."
Today, one
sees a reconstruction of the monument on the original stepped
foundation. The reconstructed monument is based on careful mathematical,
engineering, and architectural studies and archaeological excavations, the
geometry of the surviving materials, and known triumphal architecture and
building technology throughout the Roman world. All decorative stonework
was molded as exact duplicates from the original surviving architecture.
The reconstructed stone monument is mounted around a metal frame and
conservators can enter inside the monument for any preservation work when
needed. All original sculptural elements and statues can be seen, and are
protected from the weather, in the on-site museum.
The City of Tropaeum Traiani
The Roman city
of Tropaeum Traiani is located 600 meters from the modern
village of Adamclisi and 1,500 meters from the triumphal monument, on a
plateau. The city has been investigated by the Romanian archaeologists
since 1891 and excavations continue today. The ruins cover an area of more
than 100 hectares (about 250 acres). The city was occupied for five
centuries, eventually abandoned as a result of migrations of Slavs into
the
Balkan Peninsula. The Roman city was established in the year 109 and was
quickly settled by army veterans, merchants, craftsmen, and landowners.
By
116, the Roman community was consolidated. The city was located in a
highly advantageous geographic position which facilitated its rapid
development. Inscriptions during the reign of Marcus Aurelius indicate
that the city had the legal rank of 'municipium' and was lead by its own
senate, numerous magistrates, as well as a number of priests of the
official cult.
In 170, Tropaeum
Traiani was attacked from the north by the Costoboci,
after which the city continued to develop. Public and private buildings,
paved streets, sewage systems, aqueducts, water supply tank, and temples
were constructed. Economic growth through trade and exploitation of local
resources ensued, especially agricultural development and an increase in
the number of estates (villae rusticae).
The city was
attacked again in the latter half of the 3rd century by the
Carpi (a Dacian tribe in Moldavia) in alliance with the Goths. Much of the
city was destroyed. At the beginning of the 4th century, under the
co-emperors Constantine the Great and Licinius, Tropaeum Traiani was
rebuilt, as indicated by a commemorative inscription dating to 316 at the
east gate of the city:
After the economic
growth during the 4th century, Tropaeum Traiani would
face both economic and cultural decline, as did the surrounding region,
due
to both poor fiscal conditions and repeated attacks by the Huns. But at
the end of the 5th century and continuing into the latter half of the 6th
century (during the reigns of emperors Anastasius and Justinian), the city
began to flourish again becoming an important civil and religious center.
This development is quite apparent through the construction of both public
and religious buildings. Tropaeum Traiani became a bishopric in the early
centuries of Christianity; archaeological excavations have revealed five
churches (basilicas) within the city walls.
The invasions
of the Avars and Slavs in 586 seriously affected the city.
Archaeologists have found a layer of major burning. However, some modest
occupation did continue on the ruins of the burnt city into the 7th
century, during which time the city was completely abandoned.
